Assiniboine language

Assiniboine
Assiniboin, Hohe, Nakota, Nakoda, Nakon, Nakona, or Stoney
Nakʰóda
Native to	Canada, United States
Region	Saskatchewan, Canada Montana, United States
Ethnicity	3,500 Assiniboine (2007)[1]
Native speakers	150, 4.3% of ethnic population (2007)[1]
Language family	Siouan Western Siouan (Core) Mississippi Valley Siouan Dakotan Assiniboine
Language codes
ISO 639-3	asb
Glottolog	assi1247[2]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For a guide to IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Assiniboine language (also known as Assiniboin, Hohe, or Nakota, Nakoda, Nakon or Nakona,^[3] or Stoney) is a Nakotan Siouan language of the Northern Plains. The name Assiniboine comes from the term Asiniibwaan, from Ojibwe, meaning "Stone Siouans". The reason they were called this was that Assiniboine people used heated stone to boil their food. In Canada, Assiniboine people are known as Stone enimies, while they called themselves Nakota or Nakoda, meaning "allies".

Contents

• 
  1 Classification
  
  • 
    1.1 Official status
    
  
  
  • 
    1.2 Related languages
    
  
  
  • 
    1.3 Geographic distribution
    
  
  
  • 
    1.4 D-N-L Classification System
    
    • 
      1.4.1 Arguments against the Classification System
      
    
    
  
  


• 
  2 Sounds/Phonology
  
  • 
    2.1 Oral vowels
    
  
  
  • 
    2.2 Nasal Vowels
    
  
  
  • 
    2.3 Syllable structure
    
  
  


• 
  3 Grammar
  
  • 
    3.1 Morphology
    
    • 
      3.1.1 Morphophonemics
      
    
    
  
  
  • 
    3.2 Syntax
    
  
  


• 
  4 Vocabulary/lexis
  


• 
  5 Writing system
  


• 
  6 Notes
  


• 
  7 References
  


• 
  8 Bibliography
  


• 
  9 External links
  

Classification

The Dakotan group of the Siouan family has five main divisions: Dakota (Santee-Sisseton), Dakota (Yankton-Yanktonai), Lakota (Teton), Nakoda (Assiniboine) and Nakoda (Stoney).^[4][5] Along with the closely related Stoney, Assiniboine is an n variety of the Dakotan languages, meaning its autonym is pronounced with an initial n (thus: Nakʰóta as opposed to Dakʰóta or Lakʰóta, and Nakʰóda or Nakʰóna as opposed to Dakʰód or Lakʰól). The Assiniboine language is also closely related to the Sioux language and to the Stoney language (likewise called Nakoda or Nakota), although they are hardly mutually intelligible.

The Siouan Family of Languages^[6]

Official status

The Assiniboine language is not an government-recognized official language of any state or region where Assiniboine people live. There are two Reservations located in Ontario, but the official language of the state is English.^[7] An estimate of native speakers ranges from less than 50,^[8] to about 100,^[9] to about 150 Assiniboine people, most of them elderly.^[10]

Related languages

Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney are closely related languages of the Dakota family. Many linguists consider Assiniboine and Stoney to be dialects. However, they are mutually unintelligible. Parks and DeMallie report that they are not variant forms of a single dialect, but that Assiniboine is closer to the Sioux dialects than it is to Stoney. The exact number of interrelationships among the subdialects and dialects comprising this continuum is unknown.^[4]

DIALECT GROUP	SELF-DESIGNATION	POLITICAL DESIGNATION
Santee-Sisseton	Dakhóta	Sioux
Yankton-Yanktonai	Dakȟóta	Sioux
Teton	Lakȟóta	Sioux
Assiniboine	Nakhóta	Assiniboine
Stoney	Nakhóda	Stoney

Geographic distribution

The languages of the Dakotan group are spoken in the following regions:

• 
  Canada
  
  • Alberta
  
  
  • Manitoba
  
  
  • Saskatchewan
  
  


• 
  United States
  
  • Minnesota
  
  
  • Montana
  
  
  • Nebraska
  
  
  • North Dakota
  
  
  • South Dakota
  
  

RESERVATION OR RESERVE	DIALECT
Alberta
Alexis	Stoney
Big Horn	Stoney
Eden Valley	Stoney
Paul	Stoney
Stoney (Morley)	Stoney
Saskatchewan
Carry the Kettle	Assiniboine
Moose Woods (White Cap)	Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Mosquito-Grizzly Bear's Head	Assiniboine
Sioux Wahpeton (Round Plain)	Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Standing Buffalo	Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Whitebear	Assiniboine
Wood Mountain	Sioux (Teton)
Manitoba
Birdtail	Sioux (Santee)
Oak Lake	Sioux (Santee)
Sioux Valley	Sioux (Santee)
Sioux Village-Long Plain	Sioux (Santee)
North Dakota
Devil's Lake	Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Standing Rock	Sioux (Yanktonai)
South Dakota
Cheyenne River	Sioux (Teton)
Crow Creek	Sioux (Yanktonai)
Flandreau	Sioux (Santee)
Lower Brule	Sioux (Teton)
Pine Ridge	Sioux (Teton)
Rosebud	Sioux (Teton)
Sisseton	Sioux (Teton)
Standing Rock	Sioux (Teton)
Yankton	Sioux (Yankton)
Nebraska
Santee	Sioux (Santee)
Minnesota
Lower Sioux	Sioux (Santee)
Prairie Island	Sioux (Santee)
Prior Lake	Sioux (Santee)
Upper Sioux	Sioux (Santee)
Montana
Fort Belknap	Assiniboine
Fort Peck	Assiniboine, Sioux (Yanktonai, Sisseton)

D-N-L Classification System

The Assiniboine language(Nakota), the Dakota language and the Lakota language are usually classified into a group with D-N-L subgroup classification. As suggested by the name of the system, the variation in pronunciations of certain words follows the D-N-L rule. A typical example is given below:^[4]

English meaning	greasy
Santee-Sisseton	sda
Yankton-Yanktonai	sda
Teton	sla
Assiniboine	sna
Stoney	sna

Santee-Sisseton and Yankton-Yanktonai are languages that belong to the Dakotan group and Teton is a language in the Lakotan group. The table above illustrates a typical variation amongst these three languages. Just as the name of these three tribes suggest, the Dakota language, the Lakota language and the Nakota (Assiniboine) language have respective inclinations towards /d/, /l/, and /n/ in some substitutable consonants.

Arguments against the Classification System

Some scholars argue that the D-N-L classification system may not be totally accurate due to the non-rigidness of the substitution form.^[4] Siouan Indians live on an expansive continuum such that the distinction between different languages does not manifest in a rigid, clear-cutting criterion. Historically, linguists have debated on Yankton-Yanktonai languages and their proper positions into the D-N-L classification system, but the coexistence of /d/ and /n/ phonemes made such classification doubtful. This example of lexical difference between the languages of the Siouan group illustrates another possible distinction besides the D-N-L variations.^[4]

English meaning	horse
Santee-Sisseton	súkataka
Yankton-Yanktonai	sukawaka
Teton	sukawaká
Assiniboine	súkataka
Stoney	suwatága

Sounds/Phonology

The phonemic inventory has 27 consonants, which includes aspirated, plain, and ejective stops. In addition to this, it has five oral vowels and three nasal vowels. It is a structure-preserving language. Assiniboine has no definite or indefinite articles, no nominal case system, and no verbal tense marking. Clauses unmarked are "realized," while clauses marked as "potential" by means of verbal enclitic, which is successful in producing a future/non-future distinction. The verbal system is split into active and stative (split-intransitive). The active object pronominal affixes coincide with the stative verbs of the subject pronominal affixes.^[9]

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal or postalveolar	Velar	Glottal
Stop	Aspirated	pʰ	tʰ	tʃʰ	kʰ
	Ejective	pʼ	tʼ	tʃʼ	kʼ	ʔ
	Plain	p	t	tʃ	k
Fricative	Voiceless		s	ʃ	x
	Ejective		sʼ	ʃʼ	xʼ
	Voiced		z	ʒ	ɣ
Nasal		m	n
Approximant		w		j		h[cn 1]

The stops (and affricates) of Assiniboine are often described as voiced rather than plain, due to intervocalic voicing rules which result in surface voiced forms. Nonetheless, these should be analyzed as plain.^[9]

Oral vowels

Character we use:	IPA Symbol	Assiniboine Pronunciation
i	i	i as in police
u	u	oo as in book
e	e	e as in a in mate
o	o	o as in vote
a	a	a as in father

Nasal Vowels

Character we use:	IPA Symbol	Also used as
ą	ã	an, an, aη, aN
į	ĩ	in, in, iη, iN
ų	ũ	un, on, un, uη, uN

There are five oral vowels in Assiniboine, /i u e o a/, and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ũ ã/.^[9]

Words that follow above rules

• /bahá/ hill


• /pahá/ hair


• /čupó/ fog


• /ptą/ otter


• /pka/ heavy


• /psi/ rice


• /pša/to sneeze

^[11]

Syllable structure

Syllables are primarily of CV structure. While codas are possible, they are restricted and uncommon, often becoming restructured as the onset of the following syllable. Onsets may include up to two consonants but codas must be simplex. Possible onset clusters are given in the following table:^[12]

		Second
		p	t	k	s	š	c	m	n
First	p	-	ptą otter	-	psį rice	pšA sneeze	napcA swallow	-	-
	t	-	-	tkA heavy	-	-	-	-	-
	k	kpamni serve	kte kill	-	ksuyA hurt	kšikšA curly	pakcA comb	kmųkA snare	kni arrive
	s	spayA wet	stustA tired	ską melt	-	-	scu bashful	smuna fine	sni cold
	š	špą cooked	štuštA salty	škatA play	-	-	šcųka lazy	šma deep	šno melt
	x	xpą soaked	xtayetu evening	-	-	-	xcina tattered	xma sleepy	xni have a sore
	m	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	mnA smell

Grammar

Morphology

Morphological processes for Assiniboine language are primarily agglutinating.^[9] In addition, the character of morpheme alternation in Assiniboine may be classified in terms of phoneme loss, phoneme shift, contraction, nasalization loss , syllable loss , syntactic contraction, and syntactic alternation.
^[13]

Morphophonemics

Examples from Levin (1964).^[13]
Contraction->When two syllabics come into contact they contract as in:

/a/+/i/ > /i/

Ex1) ápa "morning" + íyapi "they go" > ápayapi "they stayed awake until morning"

Ex2) nakóta "ally" + iápi "they speak" > nakótiapi "a little Indian (to speak)"

/i/+/i/ > /i/ Ex) ohómini "circle" + íyapi "they go" > (a) óhominiyapi "they circle"

/a/+/u/ > /u/ Ex) wicá "them" + úkkupica "we give" > wicúkkupica "we give them"

Phoneme loss: Syllabics

when /a/ is in medial position between /k/ and /h/:

/a/> /Φ/ Ex) waníyaka "to see you" + hi "he comes" > waníyakshi "he came to see you"

when /o/ is in the medial position between /i/ and/k/:

/o/>/Φ/ Ex) ukíce "we ourselves" + okáxniga "to understand" > ukícaxnigapi "we understand each other"

when /e/ is in medial position between /p/ and /k/:

/e/>/Φ/ Ex) napé "hand" + kóza "to wave" > napkóza "to beckon"

Phoneme loss: semi syllabics

/y/ > /Φ/ when:

/y/ follows /n/ Ex)mn "I" + yuhá "to have" > mnuhá "I have"

Phoneme loss:non syllanics

/k/ is in medial position between/u/ and/k/ or /u/ and /h/ or /u/ and /n/ or /u/ and /y/

/k/ > /Φ/

Ex1) uk "we" + kágapi "they make" > ukágapi "we make"

Ex2) uk "we" + ya "you" + naxú "to hear" > nauyaxúpi "you hear us"

Phoneme shift:syllanics

/i/ > /a/ before /n/ Ex) awáci "to think" + ni "you" > awácani "you think"

Phoneme shift: non syllabics

When /a/--/e/ is in medial position between/g/ and /š/

/g/ > /x/ Ex) okáxnige "to understand" + -ši(negative suffix) > owákaxnixeši "I don't understand"

When /a/--/e/ is in medial position between/g/ and /c/

/g/ > /x/ Ex) okáxniga "to understand" + -ce(iterative suffix) + wa "I" > owákaxnixace "I understand"

When /g/ is in medial position between /a/ and /y/

/g/ > /x/ Ex) icáge "to grow" + -ya(causative suffix) > icáxya "to cause to grow"

Nasalization loss exists as follows:

/ą/ > /a/ Ex) mázą "iron" + ska "white" > mazáska "money"

Syllable loss occurs as follows:

/ye/ > /Φ/ Ex) iyópe... ye "to pay" so, iyópe + wa + ye > iyópewa "I pay"

Syntactic contraction: personal inflectional morphemes

wa "I" + ni "you" > ci "I...you"; Ex) kku "to give" + ci "I... you" + -kta(future suffix) > cicúta "I will give you"

Syntactic contraction with verbal themes occurs as follows

/i/ + /k/ - /kk/ > c; Ex) i "with something" + kahíta "to sweep" > icáhita "broom"

Syntactic alternation

/a/ > /e/ in verbal theme Ex) wamnáka "I saw" > wamnáke "I saw"

/a/>/e/ in nomial theme Ex) skúya "sweet" > skúye "sweet"

/a/>/e/ with the future suffix; wicákkupikta "they will be given" > wicákkupikte "they will be given"

Syntax

Assiniboine is SOV word order. Elements order might be different from the canonical SOV, this is not free nor scrambling word order, but instead, the result of topicalization or other movements. Out of context sentences are always interpreted as SOV order even if it sounds odd. For example, 'the man bit the dog', unless an element is moved into a focus
position. Focused element sentences are highly marked, and practically, a strange semantic reading is preferred over an interpretation of OSV. For example, the following sentence was interpreted as 'A banana ate the boy' by a native speaker, and to get the OSV reading out of it the object must be stressed, for example if the sentence was given as a reply to the question 'What did the boy eat?'.^[14]

škóškobena

banana

wãži

a

hokšína

boy

že

DET

yúda.

ate

škóškobena wãži hokšína že yúda.

banana a boy DET ate

'A banana ate the boy.' (or 'The boy ate a banana.')

Vocabulary/lexis

1. wąži - one


2. nųba - two


3. yamni - three


4. tópa - four


5. záptą - five


6. šákpe - six


7. iyušna - seven


8. šaknoğą - eight


9. napcuwąga - nine


10. wikcémna - ten


11. saba - black


12. ska - white


13. ša - red


14. to - blue

More words can be found in the Dakota-English Dictionary ^[15]

• Pronunciation may be learned at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7o1X1tBgaw by Fred Spyglass

Writing system

Class 1

wa- 1st person+singular

ya- 2nd person

Class 2

ma- 1st person+singular

ni- 2nd person

For both class 1 and 2

ũ- 1st person-singular

o- 3rd person

wica- 3rd person

ci- 1st person + singular subject/ 2nd person object^[8]

Notes

1. 
   ^ Cumberland (2005) includes /h/ as a glide rather than fricative due to its frequent place assimilation to the following vowel.
   

References

1. 
   ^ ^ab Assiniboine at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
   


2. 
   ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Assiniboine". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em
   


3. 
   ^ For the usage of the term "nakona" by Fort Peck's Assiniboine, cf. Fort Peck Community College and NHE
   


4. 
   ^ ^abcde Parks & DeMallie 1992.
   


5. 
   ^ Miller, D., Smith, D., McGeshick, J. R., Shanley, J., & Shields, C. (2020). The History of the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Montana, 1800-2000. Montana: Montana Historical Society Press.
   


6. 
   ^ West & 2003bce.
   


7. 
   ^ Services, Dale Matheson, Montana Legislative. "1-1-510. English as official and primary language of state and local governments". leg.mt.gov. Retrieved 2017-09-26.
   


8. 
   ^ ^ab West 2003.
   


9. 
   ^ ^abcde Cumberland 2005.
   


10. 
    ^ Ethnologue (cf. above).
    


11. 
    ^ Hollow, R. C.. (1970). A Note on Assiniboine Phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 36(4), 296–298. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1264256
    


12. 
    ^ Reproduced from Cumberland (2005).
    


13. 
    ^ ^ab Levin, N. B. (1964).The Assiniboine language. Bloomington: Indiana University.
    


14. 
    ^ West 2003, pp. 48–49.
    


15. 
    ^ Riggs, S. R. (1892). A Dakota-English Dictionary. Washington: US Government Printing
    

Bibliography

• 
  Cumberland, Linda (2005). A grammar of Assiniboine: a Siouan language of the Northern Plains (Ph.D. Thesis). Indiana University.
  


• 
  Parks, Douglas R.; DeMallie, Raymond J. (1992). "Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney Dialects: A Classification". Anthropological Linguistics. 34 (1/4): 233–255. doi:10.2307/30028376. JSTOR 30028376.
  


• 
  West, Shannon L. (2003). Subjects and Objects in Assiniboine Nakoda (Doctoral dissertation). University of Victoria.
  

External links

Assiniboine language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

• A video of Fred Spyglass (Mosquito First Nation) counting


• Video on Assiniboine history


• Language Geek:Assiniboine


• Native Languages: Assiniboine


• 
  Online dictionary of Assniboine, American Indian Studies Research Institute

v t e Siouan languages
Western	Missouri River Crow Hidatsa Mandan Mandan Mississippi Valley Dakotan Assiniboine Sioux Dakota Lakota Stoney Chiwere–Winnebago Chiwere Winnebago Dhegihan Kansa–Osage Omaha–Ponca Quapaw Unclassified Mitchigamea Ohio Valley Virginia Siouan Moneton Tutelo-Saponi Mississippi Siouan Biloxi Ofo
Eastern	Catawban Catawba Woccon
Italics indicate extinct languages

v t e Languages of Montana
Indigenous	Algonquian Blackfoot Cheyenne Gros Ventre Ojibwe Plains Cree Salishan Montana Salish Western Siouan Assiniboine Stoney Lakota Crow Language isolates Kutenai
Non-Indigenous	Indo-European American English Spanish German Swedish Uralic Finnish

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